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MPS ModernPeptideScience

Research Library

Every peer-reviewed study cited across the site, organized by peptide. Click through to PubMed for the source.

How to read this library

We include landmark Phase 3 RCTs, key mechanistic papers, safety reports, and — when a peptide is mostly anecdotal — a sober summary of what human data actually exists. A citation's presence here does not imply endorsement of its conclusions; context on each peptide's page explains how weight should be assigned.

Metabolic & Weight Loss (GLP-1 and Related)

Tirzepatide6 references · full page →
  1. Coskun T, et al. LY3298176, a novel dual GIP and GLP-1 receptor agonist for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus: From discovery to clinical proof of concept. Mol Metab. 2018;18:3-14. [PubMed]
  2. Samms RJ, et al. GIPR agonism mediates weight-independent insulin sensitization by tirzepatide in obese mice. J Clin Invest. 2021;131(12):e146353. [PubMed]
  3. Jastreboff AM, et al. Tirzepatide Once Weekly for the Treatment of Obesity (SURMOUNT-1). N Engl J Med. 2022;387:205-216. [PubMed]
  4. Garvey WT, et al. Tirzepatide once weekly for treatment of obesity in people with type 2 diabetes (SURMOUNT-2). Lancet. 2023;402:613-626. [PubMed]
  5. Frías JP, et al. Tirzepatide versus Semaglutide Once Weekly in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (SURPASS-2). N Engl J Med. 2021;385:503-515. [PubMed]
  6. Malhotra A, et al. Tirzepatide for the Treatment of Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Obesity (SURMOUNT-OSA). N Engl J Med. 2024;391:1193-1205. [PubMed]
Semaglutide6 references · full page →
  1. Knudsen LB, Lau J. The discovery and development of liraglutide and semaglutide as long-acting GLP-1 receptor agonists. Front Endocrinol. 2019;10:155. [PubMed]
  2. Wilding JPH, et al. Once-Weekly Semaglutide in Adults with Overweight or Obesity (STEP 1). N Engl J Med. 2021;384:989-1002. [PubMed]
  3. Rubino D, et al. Effect of Continued Weekly Subcutaneous Semaglutide vs Placebo on Weight Loss Maintenance (STEP 4). JAMA. 2021;325(14):1414-1425. [PubMed]
  4. Marso SP, et al. Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (SUSTAIN-6). N Engl J Med. 2016;375:1834-1844. [PubMed]
  5. Lincoff AM, et al. Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes (SELECT). N Engl J Med. 2023;389:2221-2232. [PubMed]
  6. Gabery S, et al. Semaglutide lowers body weight in rodents via distributed neural pathways. JCI Insight. 2020;5(6):e133429. [PubMed]
Retatrutide5 references · full page →
  1. Coskun T, et al. LY3437943, a novel triple glucagon, GIP, and GLP-1 receptor agonist for glycemic control and weight loss. Cell Metab. 2022;34(9):1234-1247. [PubMed]
  2. Urva S, et al. LY3437943, a novel triple GIP/GLP-1/glucagon receptor agonist in people with type 2 diabetes: a phase 1b, multicentre, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomised, multiple-ascending dose trial. Lancet. 2022;400(10366):1869-1881. [PubMed]
  3. Jastreboff AM, et al. Triple-Hormone-Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Obesity - A Phase 2 Trial. N Engl J Med. 2023;389:514-526. [PubMed]
  4. Rosenstock J, et al. Retatrutide, a GIP, GLP-1 and glucagon receptor agonist, for people with type 2 diabetes: a randomised, double-blind, placebo- and active-controlled, parallel-group, phase 2 trial. Lancet. 2023;402:529-544. [PubMed]
  5. Sanyal AJ, et al. Triple Hormone Receptor Agonist Retatrutide for Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease: A Randomized Phase 2a Trial. Nat Med. 2024;30:2037-2048. [PubMed]
Liraglutide5 references · full page →
  1. Knudsen LB, Lau J. The discovery and development of liraglutide and semaglutide. Front Endocrinol. 2019;10:155. [PubMed]
  2. Drucker DJ. Mechanisms of action and therapeutic application of glucagon-like peptide-1. Cell Metab. 2018;27(4):740-756. [PubMed]
  3. Marso SP, et al. Liraglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes (LEADER). N Engl J Med. 2016;375:311-322. [PubMed]
  4. Pi-Sunyer X, et al. A Randomized, Controlled Trial of 3.0 mg of Liraglutide in Weight Management (SCALE). N Engl J Med. 2015;373:11-22. [PubMed]
  5. Kelly AS, et al. A Randomized, Controlled Trial of Liraglutide for Adolescents with Obesity. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:2117-2128. [PubMed]
Dulaglutide2 references · full page →
  1. Glaesner W, et al. Engineering and characterization of the long-acting glucagon-like peptide-1 analogue LY2189265 (dulaglutide). Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2010;26(4):287-296. [PubMed]
  2. Gerstein HC, et al. Dulaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes (REWIND). Lancet. 2019;394(10193):121-130. [PubMed]
Exenatide2 references · full page →
  1. Eng J, et al. Isolation and characterization of exendin-4, an exendin-3 analogue, from Heloderma suspectum venom. J Biol Chem. 1992;267(11):7402-7405. [PubMed]
  2. Buse JB, et al. Effects of exenatide (exendin-4) on glycemic control over 30 weeks in sulfonylurea-treated patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2004;27(11):2628-2635. [PubMed]
Lixisenatide2 references · full page →
  1. Bolli GB, Munteanu M, et al. Efficacy and safety of lixisenatide once daily versus placebo in people with type 2 diabetes insufficiently controlled on metformin (GetGoal-F1). Diabet Med. 2014;31(2):176-184. [PubMed]
  2. Pfeffer MA, et al. Lixisenatide in patients with type 2 diabetes and acute coronary syndrome (ELIXA). N Engl J Med. 2015;373(23):2247-2257. [PubMed]
Survodutide2 references · full page →
  1. Zimmermann T, et al. Survodutide is a dual amylin- and glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist with anti-obesity activity in preclinical models. Cell Rep Med. 2022;3(11):100815. [PubMed]
  2. Le Roux CW, et al. Survodutide for the Treatment of Obesity. N Engl J Med. 2024;390(15):1394-1407. [PubMed]
Mazdutide3 references · full page →
  1. Innovent Biologics / Eli Lilly. Mazdutide GLORY-1 Phase 3 results in obesity (Chinese regulatory submission and corporate disclosure, 2024–2025). Peer-reviewed publication pending. [PubMed]
  2. Ji L, et al. A Phase 2 randomised controlled trial of mazdutide in Chinese overweight adults or adults with obesity. Nat Commun. 2023;14:8289. [PubMed]
  3. Pocai A, et al. Glucagon-like peptide 1/glucagon receptor dual agonism reverses obesity in mice. Diabetes. 2009;58(10):2258-2266. (Foundational dual-agonist mechanism.) [PubMed]
MariTide2 references · full page →
  1. Killion EA, et al. Anti-obesity effects of GIPR antagonists alone and in combination with GLP-1R agonists. Sci Transl Med. 2018;10(472):eaat3392. [PubMed]
  2. Véniant MM, et al. A GIPR antagonist conjugated to GLP-1 analogues promotes weight loss with improved metabolic parameters. Nat Metab. 2024;6:290-303. [PubMed]
Pemvidutide3 references · full page →
  1. Harrison SA, et al. A Phase 2 study of pemvidutide in subjects with MASH. NEJM Evid. 2024 (preliminary publication). [PubMed]
  2. Nahra R, et al. Effects of cotadutide on metabolic and hepatic parameters in adults with overweight or obesity and type 2 diabetes — relevant context for GLP-1/glucagon dual agonism in MASH. Diabetes Care. 2021;44(6):1433-1442. [PubMed]
  3. Boland ML, et al. Resolution of NASH and hepatic fibrosis by the GLP-1R/GcgR dual-agonist cotadutide via modulating mitochondrial function and lipogenesis. Nat Metab. 2020;2(5):413-431. (Mechanistic foundation for the pemvidutide class.) [PubMed]
VK27353 references · full page →
  1. Viking Therapeutics. VK2735 Phase 2 (VENTURE) topline results in obesity (corporate disclosure / preliminary release; peer-reviewed publication forthcoming). [PubMed]
  2. Min T, Bain SC. The Role of Tirzepatide, Dual GIP and GLP-1 Receptor Agonist, in the Management of Type 2 Diabetes: The SURPASS Clinical Trials. Diabetes Ther. 2021;12(1):143-157. (Class-level reference for dual GIP/GLP-1 agonism.) [PubMed]
  3. Coskun T, et al. LY3437943, a novel triple glucagon, GIP and GLP-1 receptor agonist for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity. Cell Metab. 2022;34(9):1234-1247.e9. (Class-level mechanism reference.) [PubMed]
Orforglipron2 references · full page →
  1. Bueno AB, et al. Discovery of LY3502970 (orforglipron), a small-molecule GLP-1 receptor agonist. J Med Chem. 2024;67(2):979-993. [PubMed]
  2. Wharton S, et al. Daily Oral GLP-1 Receptor Agonist Orforglipron for Adults with Obesity. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(10):877-888. [PubMed]
Danuglipron3 references · full page →
  1. Saxena AR, et al. Danuglipron (PF-06882961), an oral small-molecule GLP-1 receptor agonist, in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(5):e2314493. [PubMed]
  2. Saxena AR, et al. Identification of the first oral small-molecule GLP-1 receptor agonist (PF-06882961) as a candidate for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes. 2021;70(Suppl 1):109-OR. [PubMed]
  3. Drucker DJ. Mechanisms of action and therapeutic application of glucagon-like peptide-1. Cell Metab. 2018;27(4):740-756. (Class-level reference for GLP-1 receptor agonist pharmacology.) [PubMed]
Cagrilintide3 references · full page →
  1. Kruse T, et al. Development of Cagrilintide, a Long-Acting Amylin Analogue. J Med Chem. 2021;64:11183-11194. [PubMed]
  2. Lau DCW, et al. Once-weekly cagrilintide for weight management in people with overweight and obesity: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled and active-controlled, dose-finding phase 2 trial. Lancet. 2021;398:2160-2172. [PubMed]
  3. Enebo LB, et al. Safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of concomitant administration of multiple doses of cagrilintide with semaglutide 2.4 mg for weight management. Lancet. 2021;397:1736-1748. [PubMed]
CagriSema3 references · full page →
  1. Frias JP, et al. Efficacy and safety of co-administered once-weekly cagrilintide 2.4 mg with once-weekly semaglutide 2.4 mg in type 2 diabetes. Lancet. 2023;402:720-730. [PubMed]
  2. Enebo LB, et al. Safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamics of concomitant administration of multiple doses of cagrilintide with semaglutide 2.4 mg. Lancet. 2021;397:1736-1748. [PubMed]
  3. Novo Nordisk. REDEFINE 1 trial results (corporate release / preliminary Phase 3 reporting). Primary publication pending in a peer-reviewed journal. [PubMed]
Pramlintide3 references · full page →
  1. Lutz TA. Roles of amylin in satiation, adiposity and brain development. Forum Nutr. 2010;63:64-74. [PubMed]
  2. Whitehouse F, et al. A randomized study and open-label extension evaluating the long-term efficacy of pramlintide in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2002;25(4):724-730. [PubMed]
  3. Hollander PA, et al. Pramlintide as an adjunct to insulin therapy in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2003;26(3):784-790. [PubMed]
Setmelanotide2 references · full page →
  1. Kühnen P, et al. Proopiomelanocortin deficiency treated with a melanocortin-4 receptor agonist. N Engl J Med. 2016;375(3):240-246. [PubMed]
  2. Clément K, et al. Efficacy and safety of setmelanotide, an MC4R agonist, in individuals with severe obesity due to LEPR or POMC deficiency. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2020;8(12):960-970. [PubMed]
AOD-96043 references · full page →
  1. Heffernan M, et al. Lipolytic action of the fat-reducing region of human growth hormone. Endocrinology. 2001;142(12):5182-9. [PubMed]
  2. Ng FM, et al. Metabolic studies of a synthetic lipolytic domain (AOD9401) of human growth hormone. Horm Res. 2000;53(6):274-8. [PubMed]
  3. Metabolic Pharmaceuticals announcement regarding Phase 2b AOD9604 trial outcome, 2007 (publicly reported failure to meet primary endpoint). See also historical ADIS Insight record. [PubMed]

Healing & Recovery

BPC-1575 references · full page →
  1. Sikiric P, et al. Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157: novel therapy in gastrointestinal tract. Curr Pharm Des. 2011;17(16):1612-32. [PubMed]
  2. Chang CH, Tsai WC, Lin MS, Hsu YH, Pang JH. The promoting effect of pentadecapeptide BPC 157 on tendon healing involves tendon outgrowth, cell survival, and cell migration. J Appl Physiol. 2011;110(3):774-80. [PubMed]
  3. Sikiric P, et al. Stable gastric pentadecapeptide BPC 157 in trials for inflammatory bowel disease (PL-10, PLD-116, PL 14736, Pliva, Croatia). Curr Pharm Des. 2010;16(10):1224-34. [PubMed]
  4. Gwyer D, et al. Gastric pentadecapeptide body protection compound BPC 157 and its role in accelerating musculoskeletal soft tissue healing. Cell Tissue Res. 2019;377:153-159. [PubMed]
  5. U.S. FDA, 503A Bulk Drug Substances Nominations for Use in Compounding — Category 2 designation for BPC-157. 2023 FDA review and October 2023 regulatory announcement. [PubMed]
TB-5004 references · full page →
  1. Crockford D, et al. Thymosin beta4: structure, function, and biological properties supporting current and future clinical applications. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010;1194:179-89. [PubMed]
  2. Sosne G, Kleinman HK. Primary mechanisms of thymosin β4 repair activity in dry eye disorders and other tissue injuries. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2015;56(9):5110-7. [PubMed]
  3. Dubé KN, Smart N. Thymosin β4 and the vasculature: multiple roles in development, repair and protection against disease. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2018;18(sup1):131-139. [PubMed]
  4. U.S. FDA 503A Category 2 listing for Thymosin Beta-4 and related fragments. 2023. [PubMed]
KPV3 references · full page →
  1. Dalmasso G, Charrier-Hisamuddin L, et al. PepT1-mediated tripeptide KPV uptake reduces intestinal inflammation. Gastroenterology. 2008;134(1):166-78. [PubMed]
  2. Wikberg JES, Muceniece R, Mandrika I, et al. New aspects on the melanocortins and their receptors. Pharmacol Res. 2000;42:393-420. [PubMed]
  3. Kannengiesser K, et al. Melanocortin-derived tripeptide KPV has anti-inflammatory potential in murine models of inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2008;14(3):324-31. [PubMed]
Thymosin Alpha-13 references · full page →
  1. Goldstein AL, Badamchian M. Thymosins: chemistry and biological properties in health and disease. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2004;4(4):559-73. [PubMed]
  2. Zhang YY, et al. Clinical study on combined treatment of chronic hepatitis B with thymosin alpha-1. Hepatol Res. 2010. (Representative of meta-analysis literature.) [PubMed]
  3. Wu J, Zhou L, Liu J, et al. The efficacy of thymosin alpha 1 for severe sepsis (ETASS): a multicenter, single-blind, randomized and controlled trial. Crit Care. 2013;17(1):R8. [PubMed]
GHK-Cu3 references · full page →
  1. Pickart L. The human tri-peptide GHK and tissue remodeling. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed. 2008;19(8):969-88. [PubMed]
  2. Mulder GD, Patt LM, Sanders L, et al. Enhanced healing of ulcers in patients with diabetes by topical treatment with glycyl-l-histidyl-l-lysine copper. Wound Repair Regen. 1994;2(4):259-69. [PubMed]
  3. Leyden J, Stephens TJ, Finkey MB, Barkovic S. Skin care benefits of copper peptide containing facial cream. American Academy of Dermatology Annual Meeting Poster. 2002. (Representative of topical cosmetic trial literature.) [PubMed]
Thymosin Beta-42 references · full page →
  1. Goldstein AL, Hannappel E, Sosne G, Kleinman HK. Thymosin β4: a multi-functional regenerative peptide. Basic properties and clinical applications. Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2012;12(1):37-51. [PubMed]
  2. Sosne G, Dunn SP, Kim C. Thymosin β4 significantly improves signs and symptoms of severe dry eye in a Phase 2 randomized trial. Cornea. 2015;34(5):491-6. [PubMed]
LL-372 references · full page →
  1. Dürr UH, Sudheendra US, Ramamoorthy A. LL-37, the only human member of the cathelicidin family of antimicrobial peptides. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2006;1758(9):1408-1425. [PubMed]
  2. Gronberg A, et al. Treatment with LL-37 is safe and effective in enhancing healing of hard-to-heal venous leg ulcers: a randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Wound Repair Regen. 2014;22(5):613-621. [PubMed]
Larazotide2 references · full page →
  1. Fasano A. Zonulin and its regulation of intestinal barrier function. Physiol Rev. 2011;91(1):151-175. [PubMed]
  2. Leffler DA, et al. Larazotide acetate for persistent symptoms of celiac disease despite a gluten-free diet. Gastroenterology. 2015;148(7):1311-1319. [PubMed]
Lactoferrin2 references · full page →
  1. Legrand D. Overview of lactoferrin as a natural immune modulator. J Pediatr. 2016;173 Suppl:S10-S15. [PubMed]
  2. Pammi M, Suresh G. Enteral lactoferrin supplementation for prevention of sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;3:CD007137. [PubMed]
Cibinetide2 references · full page →
  1. Brines M, et al. Nonerythropoietic, tissue-protective peptides derived from the tertiary structure of erythropoietin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008;105(31):10925-10930. [PubMed]
  2. Brines M, et al. ARA 290, a nonerythropoietic peptide engineered from erythropoietin, improves metabolic control and neuropathic symptoms in patients with type 2 diabetes. Mol Med. 2014;20:658-666. [PubMed]
VIP2 references · full page →
  1. Delgado M, Pozo D, Ganea D. The significance of vasoactive intestinal peptide in immunomodulation. Pharmacol Rev. 2004;56(2):249-290. [PubMed]
  2. Petkov V, et al. Vasoactive intestinal peptide as a new drug for treatment of primary pulmonary hypertension. J Clin Invest. 2003;111(9):1339-1346. [PubMed]

Growth Hormone & Muscle / Performance

CJC-12953 references · full page →
  1. Alba M, et al. Effects of long-term treatment with growth hormone-releasing hormone analogs on somatotrope-releasing hormone resistance of aging. Endocrinology. 2005;146(3):1506-13. [PubMed]
  2. Teichman SL, Neale A, Lawrence B, Gagnon C, Castaigne JP, Frohman LA. Prolonged stimulation of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor I secretion by CJC-1295, a long-acting analog of GH-releasing hormone, in healthy adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(3):799-805. [PubMed]
  3. Ionescu M, Frohman LA. Pulsatile secretion of growth hormone (GH) persists during continuous stimulation by CJC-1295, a long-acting GH-releasing hormone analog. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(12):4792-7. [PubMed]
Ipamorelin2 references · full page →
  1. Raun K, Hansen BS, Johansen NL, et al. Ipamorelin, the first selective growth hormone secretagogue. Eur J Endocrinol. 1998;139(5):552-61. [PubMed]
  2. Beck DE, Sweeney WB, McCarter MD, Ipamorelin 201 Study Group. Prospective, randomized, controlled, proof-of-concept study of the ghrelin mimetic ipamorelin for the management of postoperative ileus in bowel resection patients. Int J Colorectal Dis. 2014;29(12):1527-34. [PubMed]
Sermorelin2 references · full page →
  1. FDA Orange Book record for sermorelin acetate (Geref). Also Walker RF. Sermorelin: a better approach to management of adult-onset growth hormone insufficiency? Clin Interv Aging. 2006;1(4):307-8. [PubMed]
  2. Thorner MO, et al. Acceleration of growth rate in growth hormone-deficient children treated daily with growth hormone releasing hormone (1-29)NH2. Pediatr Res. 1988;24(2):145-51. [PubMed]
Tesamorelin3 references · full page →
  1. FDA approval package for Egrifta (tesamorelin) — BLA 022505. 2010. See also Stanley TL, Grinspoon SK. Effects of growth hormone-releasing hormone on visceral fat, metabolic, and cardiovascular indices. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2015;25(2):59-65. [PubMed]
  2. Falutz J, et al. Effects of tesamorelin, a growth hormone-releasing factor, in HIV-infected patients with abdominal fat accumulation. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:2359-70. [PubMed]
  3. Stanley TL, Feldpausch MN, Oh J, et al. Effect of tesamorelin on visceral fat and liver fat in HIV-infected patients with abdominal fat accumulation. JAMA. 2014;312(4):380-9. [PubMed]
Hexarelin2 references · full page →
  1. Locatelli V, et al. Cardioprotection by GH-releasing peptides. Endocr Rev. 1999;20(2):149-176. [PubMed]
  2. Imbimbo BP, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of hexarelin. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1994;46(5):421-425. [PubMed]
GHRP-2 / GHRP-62 references · full page →
  1. Bowers CY, Reynolds GA, Durham D, Barrera CM, Pezzoli SS, Thorner MO. Growth hormone (GH)-releasing peptide stimulates GH release in normal men and acts synergistically with GH-releasing hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1990;70(4):975-82. [PubMed]
  2. Chihara K, Shimatsu A, Hizuka N, et al. A simple diagnostic test using GH-releasing peptide-2 in adult GH deficiency. Eur J Endocrinol. 2007;157(1):19-27. [PubMed]
MK-6772 references · full page →
  1. Patchett AA, et al. Design and biological activities of L-163,191 (MK-0677): a potent, orally active growth hormone secretagogue. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1995;92(15):7001-7005. [PubMed]
  2. Nass R, et al. Effects of an oral ghrelin mimetic on body composition and clinical outcomes in healthy older adults. Ann Intern Med. 2008;149(9):601-611. [PubMed]
Anamorelin2 references · full page →
  1. Currow DC, et al. ROMANA 3: a phase 3 safety extension study of anamorelin in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients with cachexia. Ann Oncol. 2017;28(8):1949-1956. [PubMed]
  2. Temel JS, et al. Anamorelin in patients with non-small-cell lung cancer and cachexia (ROMANA 1 and ROMANA 2). Lancet Oncol. 2016;17(4):519-531. [PubMed]
IGF-1 LR33 references · full page →
  1. Tomas FM, Knowles SE, Owens PC, Chandler CS, Francis GL, Read LC, Ballard FJ. Insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and especially IGF-I variants are anabolic in dexamethasone-treated rats. Biochem J. 1992;282(Pt 1):91-7. [PubMed]
  2. Yakar S, Adamo ML. Insulin-like growth factor 1 physiology: lessons from mouse models. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 2012;41(2):231-247. [PubMed]
  3. Pollak M. Insulin and insulin-like growth factor signalling in neoplasia. Nat Rev Cancer. 2008;8(12):915-928. (Important context for IGF-1 / cancer-risk discussion.) [PubMed]
MGF3 references · full page →
  1. Goldspink G. Mechanical signals, IGF-I gene splicing, and muscle adaptation. Physiology. 2005;20:232-238. [PubMed]
  2. Yang S, Alnaqeeb M, Simpson H, Goldspink G. Cloning and characterization of an IGF-1 isoform expressed in skeletal muscle subjected to stretch. J Muscle Res Cell Motil. 1996;17(4):487-495. [PubMed]
  3. Janssen JA, Hofland LJ. Editorial: Critical reflections on the new IGF-I literature regarding mechano growth factor. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2018;9:498. (Critical review of MGF translational claims.) [PubMed]
Follistatin 3442 references · full page →
  1. Lee SJ, McPherron AC. Regulation of myostatin activity and muscle growth. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98(16):9306-11. [PubMed]
  2. Mendell JR, Sahenk Z, Malik V, et al. A phase 1/2a follistatin gene therapy trial for Becker muscular dystrophy. Mol Ther. 2015;23(1):192-201. [PubMed]
Macimorelin3 references · full page →
  1. Strasburger CJ, et al. Oral macimorelin: a paradigm shift in growth hormone deficiency diagnosis. Endocrine. 2018;60(2):357-363. [PubMed]
  2. Garcia JM, Biller BMK, et al. Macimorelin as a diagnostic test for adult GH deficiency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2018;103(8):3083-3093. [PubMed]
  3. FDA approval label, Macrilen (macimorelin) oral solution. December 2017. [PubMed]
PEG-MGF3 references · full page →
  1. Goldspink G. Mechanical signals, IGF-I gene splicing, and muscle adaptation. Physiology (Bethesda). 2005;20:232-238. [PubMed]
  2. Hill M, Goldspink G. Expression and splicing of the insulin-like growth factor gene in rodent muscle is associated with muscle satellite (stem) cell activation following local tissue damage. J Physiol. 2003;549(Pt 2):409-418. [PubMed]
  3. Carpenter V, et al. Mechano-growth factor reduces loss of cardiac function in acute myocardial infarction. Heart Lung Circ. 2008;17(1):33-39. [PubMed]
Modified GRF 1-293 references · full page →
  1. Sigalos JT, Pastuszak AW. The safety and efficacy of growth hormone secretagogues. Sex Med Rev. 2018;6(1):45-53. [PubMed]
  2. Ionescu M, Frohman LA. Pulsatile secretion of growth hormone (GH) persists during continuous stimulation by CJC-1295. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(12):4792-4797. [PubMed]
  3. Walker RF. Sermorelin: a better approach to management of adult-onset growth hormone insufficiency? Clin Interv Aging. 2006;1(4):307-308. [PubMed]
GHRP-13 references · full page →
  1. Bowers CY, et al. On the in vitro and in vivo activity of a new synthetic hexapeptide that acts on the pituitary to specifically release growth hormone. Endocrinology. 1984;114(5):1537-1545. [PubMed]
  2. Bowers CY. GH releasing peptides — structure and kinetics. J Pediatr Endocrinol. 1993;6(1):21-31. [PubMed]
  3. Smith RG. Development of growth hormone secretagogues. Endocr Rev. 2005;26(3):346-360. [PubMed]

Longevity, Mitochondrial & Cognitive

MOTS-c4 references · full page →
  1. Lee C, Zeng J, Drew BG, et al. The mitochondrial-derived peptide MOTS-c promotes metabolic homeostasis and reduces obesity and insulin resistance. Cell Metab. 2015;21(3):443-54. [PubMed]
  2. Ramanjaneya M, et al. Mitochondrial-derived peptides are down regulated in diabetes subjects. Front Endocrinol. 2019;10:331. [PubMed]
  3. Kim SJ, et al. The Mitochondrial-Derived Peptide MOTS-c Is a Regulator of Plasma Metabolites and Enhances Insulin Sensitivity. Physiol Rep. 2019;7(13):e14171. [PubMed]
  4. Reynolds JC, et al. MOTS-c is an exercise-induced mitochondrial-encoded regulator of age-dependent physical decline and muscle homeostasis. Nat Commun. 2021;12:470. [PubMed]
SS-312 references · full page →
  1. Szeto HH. Mitochondria-targeted cytoprotective peptides for ischemia-reperfusion injury. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2008;10(3):601-619. [PubMed]
  2. Reid Thompson W, et al. A phase 2/3 randomized clinical trial followed by an open-label extension to evaluate the effectiveness of elamipretide in Barth syndrome (TAZPOWER). Genet Med. 2021;23(3):471-478. [PubMed]
Epitalon2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK, Morozov VG. Peptides of pineal gland and thymus prolong human life. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2003;24(3-4):233-40. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, et al. Peptide regulation of aging: 35-year research experience. Bull Exp Biol Med. 2014;156(6):824-8. [PubMed]
Khavinson short peptides2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson V, Linkova N, Kozhevnikova E, Trofimova S. Pinealon application in elderly patients. Adv Gerontol. 2017;30(2):246-255. [PubMed]
Cerebrolysin3 references · full page →
  1. Plosker GL, Gauthier S. Cerebrolysin: a review of its use in dementia. Drugs Aging. 2009;26(11):893-915. [PubMed]
  2. Heiss WD, et al. Cerebrolysin in patients with acute ischemic stroke in Asia: results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized trial (CASTA). Stroke. 2012;43(3):630-636. [PubMed]
  3. Ziganshina LE, et al. Cerebrolysin for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;7(7):CD007026. [PubMed]
Cortexin2 references · full page →
  1. Skoromets AA, et al. Clinical-pharmacological substantiation of cortexin use in cerebrovascular disease. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2008;108(11):42-46. (Russian-language journal) [PubMed]
  2. Bagaev VG, et al. Use of cortexin in pediatric neurology — clinical experience review. Russian Pediatric Journal. (Russian-language clinical review) [PubMed]
Humanin2 references · full page →
  1. Hashimoto Y, et al. A rescue factor abolishing neuronal cell death by a wide spectrum of familial Alzheimer's disease genes and Abeta. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98(11):6336-41. [PubMed]
  2. Yen K, et al. The mitochondrial derived peptide humanin is a regulator of lifespan and healthspan. Aging. 2020;12(12):11185-11199. [PubMed]
Davunetide2 references · full page →
  1. Gozes I, et al. NAP (davunetide) provides functional and structural neuroprotection. Curr Pharm Des. 2011;17(10):1040-1044. [PubMed]
  2. Boxer AL, et al. Davunetide in patients with progressive supranuclear palsy: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2/3 trial. Lancet Neurol. 2014;13(7):676-685. [PubMed]
Carnosine2 references · full page →
  1. Boldyrev AA, Aldini G, Derave W. Physiology and pathophysiology of carnosine. Physiol Rev. 2013;93(4):1803-1845. [PubMed]
  2. Hobson RM, et al. Effects of β-alanine supplementation on exercise performance: a meta-analysis. Amino Acids. 2012;43(1):25-37. [PubMed]
Glutathione3 references · full page →
  1. Wu G, Fang YZ, Yang S, Lupton JR, Turner ND. Glutathione metabolism and its implications for health. J Nutr. 2004;134(3):489-492. [PubMed]
  2. Mokhtari V, et al. A review on various uses of N-acetyl cysteine. Cell J. 2017;19(1):11-17. [PubMed]
  3. Sinha R, et al. Oral supplementation with liposomal glutathione elevates body stores of glutathione and markers of immune function. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2018;72(1):105-111. [PubMed]
FOXO4-DRI3 references · full page →
  1. de Keizer PL. The Fountain of Youth by Targeting Senescent Cells? Trends Mol Med. 2017;23(1):6-17. [PubMed]
  2. Baar MP, Brandt RM, Putavet DA, et al. Targeted Apoptosis of Senescent Cells Restores Tissue Homeostasis in Response to Chemotoxicity and Aging. Cell. 2017;169(1):132-147.e16. [PubMed]
  3. Kirkland JL, Tchkonia T. Senolytic drugs: from discovery to translation. J Intern Med. 2020;288(5):518-536. [PubMed]
SLU-PP-3322 references · full page →
  1. Hong EJ, Levasseur MP, Dufour CR, Perry MC, Giguère V. Loss of estrogen-related receptor alpha promotes hepatocellular carcinogenesis. Hepatology. 2013;58(2):605-616. [PubMed]
  2. Billon C, Sitaula S, Banerjee S, et al. Synthetic ERRα/β/γ agonist induces an ERR pan-agonist exercise-like transcriptomic response in muscle and improves metabolic phenotypes. Mol Metab. 2024;79:101852. [PubMed]
Semax2 references · full page →
  1. Asmarin IP. Nootropic analog of ACTH (4-10) -- heptapeptide semax (development, study, application). Zh Vyssh Nerv Deiat Im I P Pavlova. 1997;47(2):420-30. [PubMed]
  2. Gusev EI, et al. Semax in prevention of disease progression and development of exacerbations in patients with cerebrovascular insufficiency. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2005;105(2):35-40. [PubMed]
Selank2 references · full page →
  1. Kozlovskii II, Danchev ND. The optimizing action of the synthetic peptide selank on a conditioned active avoidance reflex. Neurosci Behav Physiol. 2003;33(1):17-21. [PubMed]
  2. Zozulia AA, et al. Efficacy and possible mechanisms of action of a new peptide anxiolytic selank in the therapy of generalized anxiety disorders and neurasthenia. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova. 2008;108(4):38-48. [PubMed]
5-Amino-1MQ2 references · full page →
  1. Kraus D, Yang Q, Kong D, et al. Nicotinamide N-methyltransferase knockdown protects against diet-induced obesity. Nature. 2014;508(7495):258-62. [PubMed]
  2. Neelakantan H, Vance V, Wetzel MD, Wang HL, McHardy SF, Finnerty CC, Hommel JD, Watowich SJ. Selective and membrane-permeable small molecule inhibitors of nicotinamide N-methyltransferase reverse high fat diet-induced obesity in mice. Biochem Pharmacol. 2018;147:141-152. [PubMed]
Gotratix2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, Linkova NS. Peptide bioregulators: a new class of geroprotectors. Adv Gerontol. 2020;10:34-45. [PubMed]
Muskulamin2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, et al. Peptide bioregulators: experience and prospects of clinical use. Pharmacology & Pharmacy. 2014;5:1-10. [PubMed]
Sigumir2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, et al. Peptide bioregulators in joint disease research. Adv Gerontol. (Russian-language gerontology journal). [PubMed]
Ventfort2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, Linkova NS. Peptide bioregulators: a new class of geroprotectors. Adv Gerontol. 2020;10:34-45. [PubMed]
Bonothyrk2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, Linkova NS. Peptide bioregulators: a new class of geroprotectors. Adv Gerontol. 2020;10:34-45. [PubMed]
Pinealon2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson V, Linkova N, Kozhevnikova E, Trofimova S. Pinealon application in elderly patients. Adv Gerontol. 2017;30(2):246-255. [PubMed]
Vesugen2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, Linkova NS. Peptide bioregulators: a new class of geroprotectors. Adv Gerontol. 2020;10:34-45. [PubMed]
Cortagen2 references · full page →
  1. Khavinson VK. Peptides and ageing. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002;23 Suppl 3:11-144. [PubMed]
  2. Khavinson VK, Linkova NS. Peptide bioregulators: a new class of geroprotectors. Adv Gerontol. 2020;10:34-45. [PubMed]

Other Commonly Discussed Peptides

PT-1414 references · full page →
  1. FDA Approval Package for Vyleesi (bremelanotide) — NDA 210557, June 21, 2019. [PubMed]
  2. Kingsberg SA, Clayton AH, Portman D, et al. Bremelanotide for the Treatment of Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder: Two Randomized Phase 3 Trials. Obstet Gynecol. 2019;134(5):899-908. [PubMed]
  3. Clayton AH, Althof SE, Kingsberg S, et al. Bremelanotide for female sexual dysfunctions in premenopausal women: a randomized, placebo-controlled dose-finding trial. Womens Health (Lond). 2016;12(3):325-37. [PubMed]
  4. Diamond LE, Earle DC, Rosen RC, Willett MS, Molinoff PB. Double-blind, placebo-controlled evaluation of the safety, pharmacokinetic properties and pharmacodynamic effects of intranasal PT-141, a melanocortin receptor agonist, in healthy males and patients with mild-to-moderate erectile dysfunction. Int J Impot Res. 2004;16(1):51-9. [PubMed]
Afamelanotide2 references · full page →
  1. Minder EI, Schneider-Yin X. Afamelanotide for the treatment of erythropoietic protoporphyria. Clin Drug Investig. 2017;37(11):1015-1024. [PubMed]
  2. Langendonk JG, et al. Afamelanotide for erythropoietic protoporphyria. N Engl J Med. 2015;373(1):48-59. [PubMed]
Melanotan II2 references · full page →
  1. Dorr RT, Ertl G, Levine N, Brooks C, Bangert JL, Powell MB, Humphrey S, Alberts DS. Effects of a superpotent melanotropic peptide in combination with solar UV radiation on tanning of the skin in human volunteers. Arch Dermatol. 2004;140(7):827-35. [PubMed]
  2. Cardones AR, Grichnik JM. alpha-Melanocyte-stimulating hormone-induced eruptive nevi. Arch Dermatol. 2009;145(4):441-4. [PubMed]
Octreotide2 references · full page →
  1. Lamberts SW, van der Lely AJ, de Herder WW, Hofland LJ. Octreotide. N Engl J Med. 1996;334(4):246-254. [PubMed]
  2. Melmed S, et al. A consensus statement on acromegaly therapeutic outcomes. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2018;14(9):552-561. [PubMed]
Teduglutide2 references · full page →
  1. Drucker DJ, Yusta B. Physiology and pharmacology of the enteroendocrine hormone glucagon-like peptide-2. Annu Rev Physiol. 2014;76:561-583. [PubMed]
  2. Jeppesen PB, et al. Teduglutide reduces need for parenteral support among patients with short bowel syndrome with intestinal failure (STEPS). Gastroenterology. 2012;143(6):1473-1481. [PubMed]
Teriparatide2 references · full page →
  1. Jilka RL. Molecular and cellular mechanisms of the anabolic effect of intermittent PTH. Bone. 2007;40(6):1434-1446. [PubMed]
  2. Neer RM, et al. Effect of parathyroid hormone (1-34) on fractures and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. N Engl J Med. 2001;344(19):1434-1441. [PubMed]
Desmopressin2 references · full page →
  1. Mannucci PM. Treatment of von Willebrand's disease. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(7):683-694. [PubMed]
  2. Robertson GL. Diabetes insipidus: differential diagnosis and management. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016;30(2):205-218. [PubMed]
Oxytocin3 references · full page →
  1. Carter CS. The oxytocin–vasopressin pathway in the context of love and fear. Front Endocrinol. 2017;8:356. [PubMed]
  2. Westhoff G, et al. Prophylactic oxytocin for the third stage of labour to prevent postpartum haemorrhage. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(10):CD001808. [PubMed]
  3. Leng G, Ludwig M. Intranasal oxytocin: myths and delusions. Biol Psychiatry. 2016;79(3):243-250. [PubMed]
DSIP2 references · full page →
  1. Schoenenberger GA, Monnier M. Characterization of a delta-electroencephalogram (-sleep)-inducing peptide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1977;74(3):1282-6. [PubMed]
  2. Kovalzon VM, Strekalova TV. Delta sleep-inducing peptide (DSIP): a still unresolved riddle. J Neurochem. 2006;97(2):303-9. [PubMed]
Topical Cosmetic Peptides2 references · full page →
  1. Schagen SK. Topical Peptide Treatments with Effective Anti-Aging Results. Cosmetics. 2017;4(2):16. [PubMed]
  2. Wang Y, Wang M, Xiao S, Pan P, Li P, Huo J. The anti-wrinkle efficacy of argireline, a synthetic hexapeptide, in Chinese subjects: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2013;14(2):147-53. [PubMed]
Collagen Peptides3 references · full page →
  1. León-López A, et al. Hydrolyzed collagen—sources and applications. Molecules. 2019;24(22):4031. [PubMed]
  2. García-Coronado JM, Martínez-Olvera L, Elizondo-Omaña RE, et al. Effect of collagen supplementation on osteoarthritis symptoms: a meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. Int Orthop. 2019;43(3):531-538. [PubMed]
  3. de Miranda RB, Weimer P, Rossi RC. Effects of hydrolyzed collagen supplementation on skin aging: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Dermatol. 2021;60(12):1449-1461. [PubMed]
Metreleptin4 references · full page →
  1. Chou K, Perry CM. Metreleptin: first global approval. Drugs. 2013;73(9):989-997. [PubMed]
  2. Oral EA, et al. Leptin-replacement therapy for lipodystrophy. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(8):570-578. [PubMed]
  3. Heymsfield SB, et al. Recombinant leptin for weight loss in obese and lean adults: a randomized, controlled, dose-escalation trial. JAMA. 1999;282(16):1568-1575. [PubMed]
  4. Welt CK, et al. Recombinant human leptin in women with hypothalamic amenorrhea. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(10):987-997. [PubMed]
Carbetocin4 references · full page →
  1. Hunter DJ, et al. Carbetocin: a synthetic analog of oxytocin. Br J Pharmacol. 1992;105(2):440-444. [PubMed]
  2. Widmer M, et al. Heat-stable carbetocin versus oxytocin to prevent hemorrhage after vaginal birth. N Engl J Med. 2018;379(8):743-752. [PubMed]
  3. Voon HY, et al. Carbetocin versus oxytocin for the prevention of postpartum hemorrhage: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Obstet Gynecol. 2018;131(4):700-710. [PubMed]
  4. Roof E, et al. Intranasal carbetocin reduces hyperphagia, anxiousness, and distress in Prader-Willi syndrome. JCI Insight. 2023;8(7):e168298. [PubMed]
DIHEXA3 references · full page →
  1. Wright JW, Harding JW. The brain renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system: a diversity of functions and implications for CNS diseases. Pflugers Arch. 2013;465(1):133-151. [PubMed]
  2. McCoy AT, et al. Evaluation of metabolically stabilized angiotensin IV analogs as procognitive/antidementia agents. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2013;344(1):141-154. [PubMed]
  3. Benoist CC, et al. The procognitive and synaptogenic effects of angiotensin IV-derived peptides are dependent on activation of the hepatocyte growth factor/c-Met system. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2014;351(2):390-402. [PubMed]
Ziconotide3 references · full page →
  1. Olivera BM, et al. Conotoxins. J Biol Chem. 1991;266(33):22067-22070. [PubMed]
  2. Staats PS, et al. Intrathecal ziconotide in the treatment of refractory pain in patients with cancer or AIDS: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291(1):63-70. [PubMed]
  3. Rauck RL, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of intrathecal ziconotide in adults with severe chronic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2006;31(5):393-406. [PubMed]